Rapid Aging in the Perforant Path Projections to the Rodent Dentate Gyrus.

Why layers II/III of entorhinal cortex (EC) deteriorate in advance of other regions during the earliest stages of Alzheimer's disease is poorly understood. Failure of retrograde trophic support from synapses to cell bodies is a common cause of neuronal atrophy, and we accordingly tested for early-life deterioration in projections of rodent layer II EC neurons. Using electrophysiology and quantitative imaging, changes in EC terminals during young adulthood were evaluated in male rats and mice. Field excitatory postsynaptic potentials, input/output curves, and frequency following capacity by lateral perforant path (LPP) projections from lateral EC to dentate gyrus were unchanged from 3 to 8-10 months of age. In contrast, the unusual presynaptic form of long-term potentiation (LTP) expressed by the LPP was profoundly impaired by 8 months in rats and mice. This impairment was accompanied by a reduction in the spine to terminal endocannabinoid signaling needed for LPP-LTP induction and was offset by an agent that enhances signaling. There was a pronounced age-related increase in synaptophysin within LPP terminals, an effect suggestive of incipient pathology. Relatedly, presynaptic levels of TrkB-receptors mediating retrograde trophic signaling-were reduced in the LPP terminal field. LTP and TrkB content were also reduced in the medial perforant path of 8- to 10-month-old rats. As predicted, performance on an LPP-dependent episodic memory task declined by late adulthood. We propose that memory-related synaptic plasticity in EC projections is unusually sensitive to aging, which predisposes EC neurons to pathogenesis later in life.SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT Neurons within human superficial entorhinal cortex are particularly vulnerable to effects of aging and Alzheimer's disease, although why this is the case is not understood. Here we report that perforant path projections from layer II entorhinal cortex to the dentate gyrus exhibit rapid aging in rodents, including reduced synaptic plasticity and abnormal protein content by 8-10 months of age. Moreover, there was a substantial decline in the performance of an episodic memory task that depends on entorhinal cortical projections at the same ages. Overall, the results suggest that the loss of plasticity and related trophic signaling predispose the entorhinal neurons to functional decline in relatively young adulthood.

Predictive role of subcomponents of the left arcuate fasciculus in prognosis of aphasia after stroke: A retrospective observational study.

The relationship between the left arcuate fasciculus (AF) and stroke-related aphasia is unclear. In this retrospective study, we aimed to investigate the role of subcomponents of the left AF in predicting prognosis of aphasia after stroke. Twenty stroke patients with aphasia were recruited and received language assessment as well as diffusion tensor tractography scanning at admission. According to injury of the left AF, the participants were classified into four groups: group A (4 cases), the AF preserved intactly; group B (6 cases), the anterior segment injured; group C (4 cases), the posterior segment injured; and group D (6 cases), completely injured. After a consecutive speech therapy, language assessment was performed again. Changes of language functions among the groups were compared and the relation between these changes with segments injury of the AF was analyzed. After therapy, relatively high increase score percentage changes in terms of all the subcategories of language assessment were observed both in group A and C; by contrast, only naming in group B, and spontaneous speech in group D. Although no statistical difference was demonstrated among the four groups. In addition, there was no significant correlation between improvement of language function with segments injury of the AF. The predictive role of subcomponents of the left AF in prognosis of aphasia is obscure in our study. Nevertheless, it indicates the importance of integrity of the left AF for recovery of aphasia, namely that preservation of the left AF on diffusion tensor tractography could mean recovery potential of aphasia after stroke.

No latency to dentate granule cell epileptogenesis in experimental temporal lobe epilepsy with hippocampal sclerosis.

OBJECTIVE: To determine when spontaneous granule cell epileptiform discharges first occur after hippocampal injury, and to identify the postinjury "latent" period as either a "silent" gestational state of epileptogenesis or a subtle epileptic state in gradual transition to a more obvious epileptic state. METHODS: Nonconvulsive status epilepticus evoked by perforant path stimulation in urethane-sedated rats produced selective and extensive hippocampal injury and a "latent" period that preceded the onset of the first clinically obvious epileptic seizures. Continuous granule cell layer depth recording and video monitoring assessed the time course of granule cell hyperexcitability and the onset/offset times of spontaneous epileptiform discharges and behavioral seizures. RESULTS: One day postinjury, granule cells in awake rats were hyperexcitable to afferent input, and continuously generated spontaneous population spikes. During the ~2-4 week "latent" period, granule cell epileptiform discharges lasting ~30 seconds caused subtle focal seizures characterized by immobilization and facial automatisms that were undetected by behavioral assessment alone but identified post hoc. Granule cell layer epileptiform discharge duration eventually tripled, which caused the first clinically obvious seizure, ending the "latent" period. Behavioral seizure duration was linked tightly to spontaneous granule cell layer events. Granule cell epileptiform discharges preceded all behavioral seizure onsets, and clonic behaviors ended abruptly within seconds of the termination of each granule cell epileptiform discharge. Noninjurious hippocampal excitation produced no evidence of granule cell hyperexcitability or epileptogenesis. SIGNIFICANCE: The latent period in this model is a subtle epileptic state in transition to a more clinically obvious epileptic state, not a seizure-free "gestational" state when an unidentified epileptogenic mechanism gradually develops. Based on the onset/offset times of electrographic and behavioral events, granule cell behavior may be the prime determinant of seizure onset, phenotype, duration, and offset in this model of hippocampal-onset epilepsy. Extensive hippocampal neuron loss could be the primary epileptogenic mechanism.

Comparative Examination of Temporal Glyoxalase 1 Variations Following Perforant Pathway Transection, Excitotoxicity, and Controlled Cortical Impact Injury.

Following acute neuronal lesions, metabolic imbalance occurs, the rate of glycolysis increases, and methylglyoxal (MGO) forms, finally leading to metabolic dysfunction and inflammation. The glyoxalase system is the main detoxification system for MGO and is impaired following excitotoxicity and stroke. However, it is not known yet whether alterations of the glyoxalase system are also characteristic for other neuronal damage models. Neuronal damage was induced in organotypic hippocampal slice cultures by transection of perforant pathway (PPT; 5 min to 72 h) and N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA; 50 µM for 4 h) or in vivo after controlled cortical impact (CCI) injury (2 h to 14 days). Temporal and spatial changes of glyoxalase I (GLO1) were investigated by Western blot analyses and immunohistochemistry. In immunoblot, the GLO1 protein content was not significantly affected by PPT at all investigated time points. As described previously, NMDA treatment led to a GLO1 increase 24 and 48 h after the lesion, whereas PPT increased GLO1 immunoreactivity within neurons only at 48 h postinjury. Immunohistochemistry of brain tissue subjected to CCI unveiled positive GLO1 immunoreactivity in neurons and astrocytes at 1 and 3 days after injury. Two hours and 14 days after CCI, no GLO1 immunoreactivity was observed. GLO1 protein content changes are associated with excitotoxicity but seemingly not to fiber transection. Cell-specific changes in GLO1 immunoreactivity after different in vitro and in vivo lesion types might be a common phenomenon in the aftermath of neuronal lesions.

Expression of human Tau40 in the medial entorhinal cortex impairs synaptic plasticity and associated cognitive functions in mice.

Entorhinal cortex (EC) is the initial brain region that suffers abnormal tau in Alzheimer's disease (AD). Whether overexpression of human tau (htau40) in EC disrupts cognitive function and synaptic plasticity in AD has not been fully elucidated. To investigate the effects of htau40 on the pathology and associated mechanisms of early stage of AD in mice, an adeno-associated virus-based htau40 transduced in medial EC (mEC) mouse model was established. The results showed that htau40 restrictedly expressed in mEC after transduction. The memory function and long-term potentiation (LTP) of dentate gyrus (DG) were significantly impaired by overexpression of htau40 in mEC after transduction at 3 and 6 months. However, the abnormities of neurons and neurotransmitters in mEC started at just 1 month after transduction. The resting membrane potential was increased and paired pulse facilitates was depressed, but the action potential amplitude, threshold, and half width did not alter after htau40 transduction at 1 month. The levels of inhibitory neurotransmitters were up regulated whereas level of lactate was decreased. Our study demonstrated that htau40 in mEC impaired cognition and synaptic plasticity of perforant path (PP)-DG, which simulated early stage of AD and elucidated the mechanism of that htau40 overexpression in mEC may be associated with the development of AD.

Acute and long-term effects of brivaracetam and brivaracetam-diazepam combinations in an experimental model of status epilepticus.

OBJECTIVE: To evaluate acute and long-term effects of intravenous brivaracetam (BRV) and BRV + diazepam (DZP) combination treatment in a rat model of self-sustaining status epilepticus (SSSE). METHODS: Rats were treated with BRV (10 mg/kg) 10 min after initiation of perforant path stimulation (PPS) as early treatment; or BRV (10-300 mg/kg), DZP (1 mg/kg), or BRV (0.3-10 mg/kg) + DZP (1 mg/kg) 10 min after the end of PPS (established SSSE). Seizure activity was recorded electrographically for 24 h posttreatment (acute effects), and for 1 week at 6-8 weeks or 12 months' posttreatment (long-term effects). All treatments were compared with control rats using one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) and Bonferroni's test, or Kruskal--Wallis and Dunn's multiple comparison tests, when appropriate. RESULTS: Treatment of established SSSE with BRV (10-300 mg/kg) resulted in dose-dependent reduction in SSSE duration and cumulative seizure time, achieving statistical significance at doses ≥100 mg/kg. Lower doses of BRV (0.3-10 mg/kg) + low-dose DZP (1 mg/kg) significantly reduced SSSE duration and number of seizures. All control rats developed spontaneous recurrent seizures (SRS) 6-8 weeks after SSSE, whereas seizure freedom was noted in 2/10, 5/10, and 6/10 rats treated with BRV 200 mg/kg, 300 mg/kg, and BRV 10 mg/kg + DZP, respectively. BRV (10-300 mg/kg) showed a dose-dependent trend toward reduction of SRS frequency, cumulative seizure time, and spike frequency, achieving statistical significance at 300 mg/kg. Combination of BRV (10 mg/kg) + DZP significantly reduced SRS frequency, cumulative seizure time, and spike frequency. In the 12-month follow-up study, BRV (0.3-10 mg/kg) + low-dose DZP markedly reduced SRS frequency, cumulative seizure time, and spike frequency, achieving statistical significance at some doses. Early treatment of SSSE with BRV 10 mg/kg significantly reduced long-term SRS frequency. SIGNIFICANCE: These findings support clinical evaluation of BRV for treatment of status epilepticus or acute repetitive seizures.

The effects of NBM- lesion on synaptic plasticity in rats.

The nucleus basalis magnocellularis (NBM) is a major source of cholinergic projections to the neocortex that is vulnerable to degeneration in Alzheimer's disease. Despite numerous anatomical, pharmacological, behavioral, and physiological investigations of NBM, there is no in vivo study of its effects on short- or long-term synaptic plasticity. Hence, this study was devoted to the assessment of the effects of bilateral lesion of the NBM on synaptic plasticity in the dentate gyrus of the hippocampus using electrophysiological techniques. For this purpose, twenty-five male Wistar rats were randomly allocated into the three Control, Sham, and NBM-lesioned groups. Lesion was made via bilateral injections of 5µg/µl ibotenic acid. After twenty-one days, the input-output functions, paired-pulse facilitation/inhibition, and long-term potentiation (LTP) were evaluated in the dentate gyrus while the perforant pathway was stimulated. NBM lesion was found to attenuate the basal synaptic responsiveness, paired-pulse responses, and LTP in the rats' dentate gyrus, indicating that lesions of this cholinergic nucleus affects both short- and long-term neural plasticity in the dentate gyrus although NBM does not send direct cholinergic projections to the hippocampus.

Removing entorhinal cortex input to the dentate gyrus does not impede low frequency oscillations, an EEG-biomarker of hippocampal epileptogenesis.

Following prolonged perforant pathway stimulation (PPS) in rats, a seizure-free "latent period" is observed that lasts around 3 weeks. During this time, aberrant neuronal activity occurs, which has been hypothesized to contribute to the generation of an "epileptic" network. This study was designed to 1) examine the pathological network activity that occurs in the dentate gyrus during the latent period, and 2) determine whether suppressing this activity by removing the main input to the dentate gyrus could stop or prolong epileptogenesis. Immediately following PPS, continuous video-EEG monitoring was used to record spontaneous neuronal activity and detect seizures. During the latent period, low frequency oscillations (LFOs), occurring at a rate of approximately 1 Hz, were detected in the dentate gyrus of all rats that developed epilepsy. LFO incidence was apparently random, but often decreased in the hour preceding a spontaneous seizure. Bilateral transection of the perforant pathway did not impact the incidence of hippocampal LFOs, the latency to epilepsy, or hippocampal neuropathology. Our main findings are: 1) LFOs are a reliable biomarker of hippocampal epileptogenesis, and 2) removing entorhinal cortex input to the hippocampus neither reduces the occurrence of LFOs nor has a demonstrable antiepileptogenic effect.

Distinct behavioral phenotypes in novel "fast" kindling-susceptible and "slow" kindling-resistant rat strains selected by stimulation of the hippocampal perforant path.

Kindling is a phenomenon of activity-dependent neural circuit plasticity induced by repeated seizures that results in progressive permanent increases in susceptibility to epilepsy. As the permanent structural and functional modifications induced by kindling include a diverse range of molecular, cellular, and functional alterations in neural circuits, it is of interest to determine if genetic background associated with seizure-induced plasticity might also influence plasticity in neural circuitry underlying other behaviors. Outbred Sprague-Dawley (SD) rats were selected and bred for ~15 generations for "fast' or "slow" rates of kindling development in response to stimulation of the perforant path input to the hippocampus. After 7-8 generations of selection and breeding, consistent phenotypes of "fast" and "slow" kindling rates were observed. By the 15th generation "fast" kindling rats referred to as Perforant Path Kindling Susceptible (PPKS) rats demonstrated a kindling rate of 10.7 ± 1.1 afterdischarges (ADs) to the milestone of the first secondary generalized (Class V) seizure, which differed significantly from "slow" kindling Perforant Path Kindling Resistant (PPKR) rats requiring 25.5 ± 2.0 ADs, and outbred SD rats requiring 16.8 ± 2.5 ADs (p<0.001, ANOVA). Seizure-naïve adult PPKS and PPKR rats from offspring of this generation and age-matched adult outbred SD rats were compared in validated behavioral measures including the open field test as a measure of exploratory activity, the Morris water maze as a measure of hippocampal spatial memory, and fear conditioning as a behavioral paradigm of associative fear learning. The PPKS ("fast" kindling) strain with increased susceptibility to seizure-induced plasticity demonstrated statistically significant increases in motor exploratory activity in the open field test and reduced spatial learning the Morris water maze, but demonstrated normal fear conditioned learning comparable to outbred SD rats and the "slow" kindling-resistant PPKR strain. These results confirm that selection and breeding on the basis of responses to repeated pathway activation by stimulation can produce enduring modification of genetic background influencing behavior. These observations also suggest that genetic background underlying susceptibility or resistance to seizure-induced plasticity in hippocampal circuitry also differentially influences distinct behaviors and learning that depend on circuitry activated by the kindling selection process, and may have implications for associations between epilepsy, comorbid behavioral conditions, and cognition.

NGF but not BDNF overexpression protects hippocampal LTP from beta-amyloid-induced impairment.

Two major neurotrophic factors, nerve growth factor (NGF) and brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) are involved in a number of physiological processes associated with neuronal growth, survival and plasticity. There are an increasing number of papers demonstrating their ability to serve as neuroprotective molecules under various pathological conditions. At the same time, it remains unclear whether both NGF and BDNF have similar roles under pathological conditions and their effects on the electrophysiological properties of neurons after acute pathogen exposure. In the present paper we investigated the neuroprotective role of these two neurotrophins in a well-characterized model of beta-amyloid peptide (Aß)-dependent impairment of long-term potentiation (LTP). Using lentiviral gene delivery we performed long-term elevation of neurotrophin expression in the dentate gyrus (DG) of rats. One week after virus injection acute brain slices were incubated with beta-amyloid (25-35) for 1h and afterward in vitro LTP induction was performed in medial perforant path-DG synapses. We demonstrate that chronic elevation of NGF but not BDNF concentration protects LTP induction from beta-amyloid action. Further inhibitory analysis suggests that the effect of NGF is mediated by PI3K-signaling cascade.

Intrinsic rescaling of granule cells restores pattern separation ability of a dentate gyrus network model during epileptic hyperexcitability.

The dentate gyrus (DG) is thought to enable efficient hippocampal memory acquisition via pattern separation. With patterns defined as spatiotemporally distributed action potential sequences, the principal DG output neurons (granule cells, GCs), presumably sparsen and separate similar input patterns from the perforant path (PP). In electrophysiological experiments, we have demonstrated that during temporal lobe epilepsy (TLE), GCs downscale their excitability by transcriptional upregulation of "leak" channels. Here we studied whether this cell type-specific intrinsic plasticity is in a position to homeostatically adjust DG network function. We modified an established conductance-based computer model of the DG network such that it realizes a spatiotemporal pattern separation task, and quantified its performance with and without the experimentally constrained leaky GC phenotype. Two proposed TLE seizure mechanisms were implemented in various degrees and combinations: recurrent GC excitation via mossy fiber sprouting and increased PP input. While increasing PP strength degraded pattern separation only gradually, already the slight elevation of sprouting drastically (non-linearly) impaired pattern separation. In most tested hyperexcitable networks, leaky GCs ameliorated pattern separation. However, in some sprouting situations with all-or-none seizure behavior, pattern separation was disabled with and without leaky GCs. In the mild sprouting (and PP increase) region of non-linear impairment, leaky GCs were particularly effective in restoring pattern separation performance. These results are compatible with the hypothesis that the experimentally observed intrinsic rescaling of GCs serves to maintain the physiological function of the DG network.

Effect of chronic stress on short and long-term plasticity in dentate gyrus; study of recovery and adaptation.

Stress dramatically affects synaptic plasticity of the hippocampus, disrupts paired-pulse facilitation and impairs long-term potentiation (LTP). This study was performed to find the effects of chronic restraint stress and recovery period on excitability, paired-pulse response, LTP and to find probable adaptation to very long stress in the dentate gyrus. Thirty-eight male Wistar rats were randomly divided into four groups of Control, Rest-Stress (21 days stress), Stress-Rest (recovery) and Stress-Stress (42 days stress: adaptation). Chronic restraint stress was applied 6-h/day. Input-output functions, paired-pulse responses and LTP were recorded from the dentate gyrus while stimulating the perforant pathway. We found that chronic stress attenuated the responsiveness, paired-pulse response and LTP in the dentate gyrus. A 21-day recovery period, after the stress, improved all the three responses toward normal, indicating reversibility of these stress-related hippocampal changes. There was no significant adaptation to very long stress, probably due to severity of stress.

Chronic nicotine pretreatment is sufficient to upregulate α4* nicotinic receptors and increase oral nicotine self-administration in mice.

BACKGROUND: Understanding the underlying causes of nicotine addiction will require a multidisciplinary approach examining the key molecular, cellular and neuronal circuit functional changes that drive escalating levels of nicotine self-administration. In this study, we examined whether mice pretreated with chronic nicotine, at a dosing regimen that results in maximal nicotinic acetylcholine receptor (nAChR) upregulation, would display evidence of nicotine-dependent behaviour during nicotine self-administration. RESULTS: We investigated oral self-administration of nicotine using a two-bottle choice paradigm in which one bottle contained the vehicle (saccharine-sweetened water), while the other contained nicotine (200 µg/ml) in vehicle. Knock-in mice with YFP-tagged α4 nAChR subunits (α4YFP) were implanted with osmotic pumps delivering either nicotine (2 mg/kg/hr) or saline for 10 days. After 10 days of pretreatment, mice were exposed to the nicotine self-administration paradigm, consisting of four days of choice followed by three days of nicotine abstinence repeated for five weeks. Mice pre-exposed to nicotine had upregulated α4YFP nAChR subunits in the hippocampal medial perforant path and on ventral tegmental area GABAergic neurons as compared to chronic saline mice. Compared to control saline-pretreated mice, in a two bottle-choice experiment, nicotine-primed mice ingested a significantly larger daily dose of nicotine and also exhibited post-abstinence binge drinking of nicotine. CONCLUSIONS: Chronic forced pre-exposure of nicotine is sufficient to induce elevated oral nicotine intake and supports the postulate that nAChR upregulation may be a key factor influencing nicotine self-administration.

Enhanced sequential reaction time task performance in a rat model of mesial temporal lobe epilepsy with classic hippocampal sclerosis.

The human serial reaction time task (SRTT) has widely been used to study the neural basis of implicit learning. It is well documented, in both human and animal studies, that striatal dopaminergic processes play a major role in this task. However, findings on the role of the hippocampus - which is mainly associated with declarative memory - in implicit learning and performance are less univocal. We used a SRTT to evaluate implicit learning and performance in rats with perforant pathway stimulation-induced hippocampal neuron loss; a clinically-relevant animal model of mesial temporal lobe epilepsy (MTLS-HS). As has been previously reported for the Sprague-Dawley strain, 8h of continuous stimulation in male Wistar rats reliably induced widespread neuron loss in areas CA3 and CA1 with a characteristic sparing of CA2 and the granule cells. Histological analysis revealed that hippocampal volume was reduced by an average of 44%. Despite this severe hippocampal injury, rats showed superior performance in our instrumental SRTT, namely shorter reaction times, and without a loss in accuracy, especially during the second half of our 16-days testing period. These results demonstrate that a hippocampal lesion can improve performance in a rat SRTT, which is probably due to enhanced instrumental performance. In line with our previous findings based on ibotenic-acid induced hippocampal lesion, these data support the hypothesis that loss or impairment of hippocampal function can enhance specific task performance, especially when it is dependent on procedural (striatum-dependent) mechanisms with minimal spatial requirements. As the animal model used here exhibits the defining characteristics of MTLE-HS, these findings may have implications for the study and management of patients with MTLE.

Neuropsychological evidence for the functional role of the uncinate fasciculus in semantic control.

Understanding a word requires mapping sounds to a word-form and then identifying its correct meaning, which in some cases necessitates the recruitment of cognitive control processes to direct the activation of semantic knowledge in a task appropriate manner (i.e., semantic control). Neuroimaging and neuropsychological studies identify a fronto-temporal network important for word comprehension. However, little is known about the connectional architecture subserving controlled retrieval and selection of semantic knowledge during word comprehension. We used diffusion tensor imaging (DTI) and resting-state functional magnetic resonance imaging (rs-fMRI) in aphasic individuals with varying degrees of word comprehension deficits to examine the role of three white matter pathways within this network: the uncinate fasciculus (UF), inferior longitudinal fasciculus (ILF), and inferior fronto-occipital fasciculus (IFOF). Neuroimaging data from a group of age-matched controls were also collected in order to establish that the patient group had decreased structural and functional connectivity profiles. We obtained behavioral data from aphasic participants on two measures of single word comprehension that involve semantic control, and assessed pathway functional significance by correlating patients' performance with indices of pathway structural integrity and the functional connectivity profiles of regions they connect. Both the structural integrity of the UF and the functional connectivity strength of regions it connects predicted patients' performance. This result suggests the semantic control impairment in word comprehension resulted from poor neural communication between regions the UF connects. Inspections of other subcortical and cortical structures revealed no relationship with patients' performance. We conclude that the UF mediates semantic control during word comprehension by connecting regions specialized for cognitive control with those storing word meanings. These findings also support a relationship between structural and functional connectivity measures, as the rs-fMRI results provide converging evidence with those obtained using DTI.

Human P301L-mutant tau expression in mouse entorhinal-hippocampal network causes tau aggregation and presynaptic pathology but no cognitive deficits.

Accumulation of hyperphosphorylated tau in the entorhinal cortex (EC) is one of the earliest pathological hallmarks in patients with Alzheimer's disease (AD). It can occur before significant Aß deposition and appears to "spread" into anatomically connected brain regions. To determine whether this early-stage pathology is sufficient to cause disease progression and cognitive decline in experimental models, we overexpressed mutant human tau (hTauP301L) predominantly in layer II/III neurons of the mouse EC. Cognitive functions remained normal in mice at 4, 8, 12 and 16 months of age, despite early and extensive tau accumulation in the EC. Perforant path (PP) axon terminals within the dentate gyrus (DG) contained abnormal conformations of tau even in young EC-hTau mice, and phosphorylated tau increased with age in both the EC and PP. In old mice, ultrastructural alterations in presynaptic terminals were observed at PP-to-granule cell synapses. Phosphorylated tau was more abundant in presynaptic than postsynaptic elements. Human and pathological tau was also detected within hippocampal neurons of this mouse model. Thus, hTauP301L accumulation predominantly in the EC and related presynaptic pathology in hippocampal circuits was not sufficient to cause robust cognitive deficits within the age range analyzed here.

A diffusion tensor imaging and neurocognitive study of HIV-positive children who are HAART-naïve "slow progressors".

There are few neuropsychological or neuroimaging studies of HIV-positive children with "slow progression". "Slow progressors" are typically defined as children or adolescents who were vertically infected with HIV, but who received no or minimal antiretroviral therapy. We compared 12 asymptomatic HIV-positive children (8 to 12 years) with matched controls on a neuropsychological battery as well as diffusion tensor imaging in a masked region of interest analysis focusing on the corpus callosum, internal capsule and superior longitudinal fasciculus. The "slow progressor" group performed significantly worse than controls on the Wechsler Abbreviated Scale of Intelligence Verbal and Performance IQ scales, and on standardised tests of visuospatial processing, visual memory and executive functioning. "Slow progressors" had lower fractional anisotropy (FA), higher mean diffusivity (MD) and radial diffusivity (RD) in the corpus callosum (p= <0.05), and increased MD in the superior longitudinal fasciculus, compared to controls. A correlation was found between poor performance on a test of executive function and a test of attention with corpus callosum FA, and a test of executive function with lowered FA in the superior longitudinal fasiculus. These data suggest that demyelination as reflected by the increase in RD may be a prominent disease process in paediatric HIV infection.

Age-related memory deficits linked to circuit-specific disruptions in the hippocampus.

Converging data from rodents and humans have demonstrated an age-related decline in pattern separation abilities (the ability to discriminate among similar experiences). Several studies have proposed the dentate and CA3 subfields of the hippocampus as the potential locus of this change. Specifically, these studies identified rigidity in place cell remapping in similar environments in the CA3. We used high-resolution fMRI to examine activity profiles in the dentate gyrus and CA3 in young and older adults as stimulus similarity was incrementally varied. We report evidence for "representational rigidity" in older adults' dentate/CA3 that is linked to behavioral discrimination deficits. Using ultrahigh-resolution diffusion imaging, we quantified both the integrity of the perforant path as well as dentate/CA3 dendritic changes and found that both were correlated with dentate/CA3 functional rigidity. These results highlight structural and functional alterations in the hippocampal network that predict age-related changes in memory function and present potential targets for intervention.

[Coherence and phase analysis of theta-oscillations in the septohippocampal system during seizures].

Interrelations of the hippocampus and medial septal area (MSA) in the theta band (4-8 Hz) were studied during seizures produced by electrical kindling in waking guinea pigs. Field activity (EEG) was analyzed using the wavelet transform. A decrease in coherence of theta-oscillations in the hippocampus and MSA was observed during seizures. Phase analysis showed that in the beginning of kindling the MSA led in phase, but after formation of the pathological focus, MSA lagged the hippocampus. The data may contribute to understanding mechanisms of temporal lobe epilepsy.

Repetitive perforant-path stimulation induces epileptiform bursts in minislices of dentate gyrus from rats with kainate-induced epilepsy.

The epileptic hippocampus has an enhanced propensity for seizure generation, but how spontaneous seizures start is poorly understood. Using whole cell and field-potential recordings, this study explored whether repetitive perforant-path stimulation at physiological frequencies could induce epileptiform bursts in dentate gyrus minislices from rats with kainate-induced epilepsy. Control slices from saline-treated rats responded to single perforant-path stimulation with an excitatory postsynaptic potential (EPSP) and a single population spike in normal medium, and repetitive stimulation at different frequencies (0.1, 1, 2, 5, 10 Hz) did not cause significant increases in the responses. Most minislices (82%) from rats with kainate-induced epilepsy also responded to single perforant-path stimulation with an EPSP and a single population spike/action potential, but some slices (18%) had a more robust response with a prolonged duration and negative DC shift or responses with two to three population spikes. Repetitive perforant-path stimulation at 5-10 Hz, however, transformed the single-spike responses into epileptiform bursts with multiple spikes in half (52%) of the slices, while lower frequency (e.g., ≤ 1 Hz) stimulation failed to produce these changes. The emergence of epileptiform bursts was consistently associated with a negative field-potential DC shift and membrane depolarization. The results suggest that compared with the controls, the "gate" function of the dentate gyrus is compromised in rats with kainate-induced epilepsy, and epileptiform bursts (but not full-length seizure events) can be induced in minislices by repetitive synaptic stimulation at physiological frequencies in the range of hippocampal theta rhythm (i.e., 5-10 Hz).